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Chordate Fossils Foil Theory

By Fazale R. Rana

China’s rich cache of fossils provides paleontologists with a window to the time in Earth’s history when complex animal life first appeared. As scientists peer through this window, they see a scene that defies naturalistic explanation.

The fossils discovered in China, along with those in British Columbia and elsewhere, present an unexpected picture: nearly every animal phylum ever to exist in Earth’s history appeared suddenly about 540 million years ago.1 A phylum refers to the level in the biological classification system describing an organism’s body plan or architectural makeup. Some paleontologists report that more than seventy animal phyla (strictly marine animals) appeared in less than 2-3 million years. Scientists refer to this dramatic introduction of animal phyla as the Cambrian Explosion—biology’s “big bang.”

Paleontologists had thought the Cambrian event involved only invertebrates (organisms lacking a backbone). However, the recent discovery of jawless vertebrates from the lower (earlier) Cambrian deposits in China changed their view. Researchers must now account for the simultaneous appearance of both groups.2

The phylum Chordata holds special interest for paleontologists researching the origin of animal life. Chordates include all vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) and some invertebrates. To understand the origin of chordates, therefore, is to understand the beginning of some of the most important organisms in Earth’s history. For this reason, evolutionary biologists peer eagerly through this window of time. They especially hope to see the connection between chordates and the other invertebrate phyla.

According to the most widely accepted evolutionary model, echinoderms (sea stars, sea cucumbers, etc.) gave rise to chordates (and to hemichordates, as an evolutionary side-branch).3 This model posits that a sessile (attached to the seafloor) echinoderm brought forth a sessile chordate (classified as a urochordate), similar to modern-day tunicates (sessile invertebrates with a free-swimming larval form). The urochordate then gave rise to a free-swimming cephalochordate, which in turn produced jawless vertebrates, followed by jawed vertebrates.

The prediction for the fossil record, in light of the evolutionary model for chordate origins, calls for echinoderms, urochordates, hemichordates, cephalochordates, jawless vertebrates, and jawed vertebrates to appear sequentially. Given the extensive differences among these groups, their first occurrence in the fossil record should be separated by long time periods, much longer than the 2-3 million years shown by the Cambrian Explosion.

The China discoveries show, instead, the co-existence of echinoderms, hermichordates, cephalochordates, and jawless vertebrates in the earliest part of the Cambrian era.4 And now Chinese paleontologists have added urochordates to this list with the discovery of a tunicate in lower (earlier) Cambrian rocks.5 Before the Cambrian era, no such animal groups existed on Earth. In other words, early in the Cambrian period, when complex animal life first appeared, the kinds of creatures that should have given rise (according to evolutionary theory) to the jawed vertebrates emerged concurrently.

To compound this problem, Chinese paleontologists now recognize an additional phylum (Vetulicolia) as part of the Cambrian event.6 This taxa’s features place it at the base of the chordate evolutionary tree. This makes the Cambrian explosion that much more dramatic. In the words of the Chinese scientists, “the co-occurrence of stem-group deuterostomes [Vetulicolia] and agnathan [jawless] fish are consistent with an ‘explosion’ of metazoan body plans in the latest Neoproterozoic and early Cambrian.”7

What researchers see as their view through the window of time grows clearer is the sudden and simultaneous appearance of echinoderms, hemichordates, urochordates, cephalochordates and jawless vertebrates in the fossil record. This image, with its observable data, confounds a naturalistic explanation but conforms to a biblical creation model that asserts the divinely orchestrated introduction of complex animal life on Earth.

References:

  1. Fazale Rana and Hugh Ross, “The Cambrian ‘Explosion’ and Why It Means So Much for Christians,” Facts for Faith 2 (Q2 2000), 15-17.
  2. D. –G. Shu et al., “Lower Cambrian Vertebrates from South China,” Nature 402 (1999): 42-46; Jun-Yung Chen et al., “An Early Cambrian Craniate-like Chordate,” Nature 402 (1999): 518-22.
  3. Cleveland P. Hickman, Sr. et al., Integrated Principles of Zoology, 6th ed. (St. Louis, MO: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1979), 476-81.
  4. Fazale R. Rana, “Cambrian Flash,” Connections, vol. 2, no. 1 (2000), 3; Fazale “Fuz” Rana, “Extinct Shell Fish Speaks Today,” Connections vol. 3, no. 2 (2001), 1-2.
  5. D. –G. Shu et al., “An Early Cambrian Tunicate from China,” Nature 411 (2001): 472-3.
  6. D. –G. Shu et al., “Primitive Deuterostomes from the Chengjiang Lagerstatte (Lower Cambrian, China),” Nature 414 (2001): 419-24.
  7. D. –G. Shu et al., “Primitive Deuterostomes,” 419-24.

Climatology Reveals Creation Clues

A Profile of apologist Kevin Birdwell written by Susan Hanks Mowen

By day, climatologist Kevin Birdwell seeks answers to mysteries of human history via climatological records. By night, he uses that research to enhance his teaching at a Christian college. Studying ancient weather at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee intrigues Birdwell “because it reveals so much about the intricacies of Earth’s ability to support life." And, the way these discoveries affirm the Christian faith stimulates his enthusiastic pursuit of more new evidence.

Paleoclimatology—the science dealing with the weather of past ages—often supports or sheds new light on biblical narrative. Birdwell says: “Analysis of pollen, ice cores, tree rings, coral bands, carbon-14, uranium series dating, and ocean sediment gives us a window to the past. Recent advances in tree ring studies, for example, allow a more precise calibration of carbon-14 records, thus fine tuning dates of some documented events.”

Connecting Climate and Scripture

According to Birdwell, paleoclimate information may help resolve the dating of Noah’s flood as well as clarify some of the obscure details of history between Noah and Abraham. Birdwell is currently investigating the possibility of a Beryllium-10 spike (an indicator of a cosmic event) in the Vostok Antarctic ice core. This could be a signal of the Vela supernova, probable contributor to the shortening of human life spans recorded in Genesis 6:3.

"Some people think climate change is a modern phenomenon, but it's not." Birdwell's passion and curiosity become contagious as he discusses one of the great mysteries of climatology. "Around 4,100 years ago a major discontinuity appeared when the entire tropical climate system around the world appears to have shut down. The land around the Mediterranean Sea used to have a lot of trees, but it became mostly rocky hills. Egyptians saw the Nile dry up and the Sahara grasslands where hippos once roamed turned into the Sahara Desert. The Old Testament mentions of major droughts such as the one of Joseph’s era (Gen. 41-47), among others, seem consistent with this paleoclimate evidence. Dramatic climate change provides a powerful time marker in Earth’s history."

Paleoclimatologists have yet to discover the cause of some ecological transformations. They do surmise, however, that some of these changes may help explain human migration. A drought may have coincided with the famine that compelled Abraham's move from Canaan to Egypt (Gen. 12:10).

Archaeology uncovers additional evidence for the Christian faith. “During the ice age, at least 11,000 years ago, sea levels were as much as 200 feet lower, which means a lot more land was exposed. Humans likely settled along those coasts, which are now under water." Exploration of such inaccessible areas is costly, but if it takes place, Birdwell believes scientists will gain some significant Bible-affirming data about human history.

"Such discoveries often validate the Bible’s statements. The more I get into the study of climate and its history, the more I find out about human history and how it fits into the biblical story."

Connecting the Facts

Solid understanding of the Bible helps Birdwell sort out the complexities of spiritual terrain. During his early college years he worked hard to resolve what appeared to be inconsistencies between the Bible and nature. He began to realize that interpretations could be confused with facts. Introduced to the claims of Christ as a preschooler, Birdwell credits good teaching for helping his faith make sense. “My family traveled a lot since my father worked for the government, but we were always in churches that took the Bible seriously. I am thankful for teaching that sustained my faith.

To help others discern the facts in which Christian faith is rooted, Birdwell has developed two apologetics classes for second and third year students at Covenant Life Christian College, an accredited college that attracts nontraditional students. “The first class focuses on Christian apologetics from a philosophical standpoint. It covers worldviews and responses to skeptical challenges such as the evil and suffering question and current issues in Christian ethics. The second class tackles science apologetics focusing on biblical creation passages, the design of creation, the evolutionary debate, and whether the Earth is young or old.” Birdwell has also taught a religion and cults series at the college helping students understand the teachings of the Jehovah’s Witnesses, Mormons, and Muslims—religious groups with significant following in the Knoxville, Tennessee area.

As a Christian apologist, Birdwell recognizes the value of understanding the sciences. The more he learns, the stronger his faith and passion to share it with others. His wife Marsha, a Christian educator agrees: “Although my background isn’t apologetics, I support Kevin’s ongoing efforts. I’m excited Kevin has found such a meaningful way to help others grow in their faith." And regardless of his busy schedule, Birdwell tries to make time for his two sons, Keith (6) and Kyle (3). He particularly likes to expose them to God’s creation. They often visit local attractions such as the Great Smoky Mountains and several area aquariums and zoos.

Connecting with the Future

To further enhance his knowledge and goals, Birdwell is currently working toward a University of Tennessee (UT) Ph.D. in geography with specialties in climatology, environmental geography, and air quality. “I have talked about divine design evidences with professors and fellow students. Although many of them are committed to a naturalistic viewpoint, several have been impressed with the data I present,” Birdwell said. “One of the most-encouraging comments I received came from an evolutionary biology major who said he would have to think about these matters. Given his depth and perspective, that meant a lot.”

Nudging people to consider different perspectives motivates Birdwell to think ahead. He’d like to invite Dr. Hugh Ross and Dr. Fazale Rana from Reasons To Believe to a special outreach on campus during UT’s annual celebration of “Darwin Day.” Birdwell also wants to “help the church culture understand the university culture so we can do a better job of discussing evolution, the sciences, and philosophy. And, I would like to help the university culture embrace the Bible as a viable and readable book,” he said. “I am especially dismayed when someone relates: ‘My son/daughter/brother/sister grew up in the church, went to college and then walked away from the faith.’ This tragedy doesn’t have to happen! What gives me joy is seeing people enter or re-enter Christian fellowship after being shown realistic answers to their questions and doubts."

Birdwell thrives on the tough questions college students eagerly ask at open forums. However, he is disappointed that “so few Christian groups on campus address such issues with a kind, respectful approach." Too often a combative or confrontational response leaves a void where students want answers.

In such cases, Proverbs 8:23-29 offers Birdwell the comforting reminder that creation itself continually declares the wisdom of God:

"I [wisdom] was appointed from eternity, from the beginning, before the world began. When there were no oceans, I was given birth, when there were no springs abounding with water; before the mountains were settled in place, before the hills, I was given birth, before He made the earth or its fields or any of the dust of the world. I was there when He set the heavens in place, when He marked out the horizon on the face of the deep, when He established the clouds above and fixed securely the fountains of the deep, when He gave the sea its boundary so the waters would not overstep His command, and when He marked out the foundations of the earth."

Climatology continues to provide evidence for God’s wisdom and power, increasing Birdwell’s appreciation for the creation and Creator. And, that appreciation keeps him busy sharing with others how science fits with Scripture.

Nanodevices Make Megascopic Statement

By Fazale R. Rana

The “Watchmaker” argument asserts that as the intricacy of a watch implies the mind and work of a watchmaker, so the complexity of an organism also implies the work of an Intelligent Designer. Skeptics, in attacking the Watchmaker argument, challenge the necessity of a Creator’s existence from the study of nature, saying that at best, only a weak analogy exists between a watch and nature. However, recent discoveries showing detailed similarities between biomolecular motors and man-made machines revitalize and add a powerful dynamic to the Watchmaker argument for an Intelligent Designer.1

Biomolecular motors generate movement within a cell. Several of these protein/enzyme ensembles, as well as other enzymes, possess components functioning as strict analogs to man-made machine parts.2 The remarkable resemblance of these biomolecular motors' (machines by definition) to man-made machines may hold the key to unlocking future technological advance.

The inability to power motion in nanodevices (molecular-sized constructs made by engineering molecules and organized into a precise arrangement) stands as one of the major barriers preventing nanotechnology from becoming viable. The Sixth Foresight Conference on Molecular Nanotechnology (held in November 1998) revealed an important first step towards achieving powered motion in nanodevices. Scientists from Cornell and an independent group from the University of Washington in Seattle reported the feasibility of using biomolecular motors to power man-made molecular devices.3

Advancing earlier feasibility studies, Cornell University scientists produced a hybrid nanomechanical device powered by a biomolecular motor.4 With dimensions of less than 1,000 nanometers (1 billion nanometers equals 1 meter), nanodevices possess potential applications in manufacturing, electronics, and medicine. Using biomolecular motors to power man-made nanodevices “drives home” the machine-like character of biomolecular motors. 

The particular biomolecular motor employed by the Cornell scientists, F1-F0 ATPase, plays a central role in harvesting energy for cellular use.5 F1-F0 ATPase is a mushroom-shaped enzyme complex that possesses a turbine, rotor, and stator.

The Cornell researchers attached nickel nanopropellers to the F1-F0 ATPase rotor. Upon the addition of ATP—a chemical compound that powers the F1-F0 ATPase rotor—the nanopropellers rotated at a velocity of 0.74 to 8.3 revolutions per second. The F1-F0 ATPase-powered nanodevice operated at nearly 80 percent efficiency (compared with the 20 percent efficiency of an automobile engine).

The structures of biomolecular assemblies not only highlight the similarity between cellular and man-made machines, but also reflect the knowledge and intelligence of the one who engineered them. Biomolecular machines display far more complex, efficient, and elegant design than anything humans can engineer.

Research in nanotechnology continues to expose the difficulty of mimicking in the laboratory that which nature does readily. Working at a molecular level, scientists have been unable, in any practical sense, to build a synthetic molecular motor capable of powering nanodevices. In the words of one researcher actively investigating F1-F0 ATPase, “We couldn’t ever build a motor that small—but nature has.”6 In light of this comparison, does it really make sense to view these tiny, complex, and efficient biological molecular motors as the simple product of blind, random biochemical events?

References:

  1. Fazale Rana and Micah Lott, “Hume vs. Paley: These ‘Motors’ Settle the Debate,” Facts for Faith 2, (Q2 2000), 34-39.
  2. Rana and Lott, 34-39.
  3. Robert F. Service, “Borrowing from Biology to Power the Petite,” Science 283 (1999), 27-28.
  4. Ricky K. Soong et al., “Powering an Inorganic Nanodevice with a Biomolecular Motor,” Science 290 (2000), 1555-58.
  5. Matti Saraste, “Oxidative Phospherylation at the Fin de Siècle,” Science 283 (1999), 1488-93.
  6. Helen Pearson, “Japanese Take Revolutionary Snapshots,” Nature Science Updates, April 19, 2001. Available from http://www.nature.com/nsu/010419/010419-3.html; accessed October 24, 2001.

Biodiversity Peaked Early

By Fazale R. Rana

In 2001 an international “dream team” of twenty-five leading paleontologists representing more than fifteen institutions completed the first stage in assembling a massive database of fossils spanning the last 550 million years of Earth’s history.1 The goal: a comprehensive record of terrestrial and marine fossils for all geographical regions of Earth. These scientists anticipate that the paleobiology database will be an important resource for discerning trends in life’s history.

Already, the team’s hopes are being fulfilled. Their inaugural analysis of the preliminary data set for marine invertebrate fossils provided radical new insight into life’s early diversity.

For the past twenty years, scientists have interpreted the fossil record as indicating that life’s diversity exploded after the Permian extinction, around 250 million years ago. Presumably, evolutionary innovation drove the exponential increase in biodiversity. Paleontologists argued that increased biodiversity resulted from “snowballing” evolutionary processes driven by expanded life activities and predatory modes.

However, analysis of the marine invertebrate fossil record reveals a much different picture. Instead of exploding after the Permian extinction, biodiversity peaked soon after the onset of the Cambrian explosion—the time that complex animals first appeared on Earth—and has remained constant since then. Biodiversity appears to have reached a ceiling level almost immediately after complex animal life first appeared on the scene.

Though viewed as a preliminary finding, scientists think this new description of biodiversity more closely reflects the realities of life’s history. The traditional understanding of life’s diversity was based on a far less descriptive data set than the one contained in the paleobiology database, and it stemmed from analytical methods that could not adequately account for sampling biases. Paleontologists extracted the new picture of life’s diversity using eight independent statistical tools that corrected for sampling effects.

More confirmation comes from a University of Chicago research team.2 Based on a statistical analysis, they demonstrate that the “rise in biodiversity” after the Permian extinction results from a sampling bias. They find that biodiversity closely correlates with the number of sedimentary rocks available for study. There is a greater abundance of rocks from recent geological eras. More rocks means more fossils. More fossils leads to a greater apparent biodiversity in the fossil record after the Permian extinction.

Biodiversity’s apparent maximal constancy since the Cambrian explosion finds ready explanation in RTB’s biblical creation model. According to this model, God has exquisitely fine-tuned Earth’s conditions for the last 4 billion years to allow for maximum diversity of life. This scenario translates into a rich abundance of natural resources (biodeposits) for humanity.3 The RTB biblical creation model correctly accounts for maximal and unchanging biodiversity since the inception of complex animal life, as found in the fossil record.

References:

  1. Richard A. Kerr, “Evolution: Putting Limits on the Diversity of Life,” Science 292 (2001): 1481; Mark Newman, “A New Picture of Life’s History on Earth,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 98 (2001): 5955-56; J. Alroy et al., “Effects of Sampling Standardization on Estimates of Phanerozoic Marine Diversification,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 98 (2001): 6261-66.
  2. Shanan E. Peters and Michael Foote, “Biodiversity in the Phanerozoic: A Reinterpretation,” Paleobiology 27 (2001): 583-601.
  3. Hugh Ross, The Genesis Question: Scientific Advances and the Accuracy of Genesis (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1998), 44.